Over the past 60 years The Gulf Region has undergone an unprecedented leap into the modern world from rural isolated communities ruled by local tribal hierarchies to centralized state systems with expanding modern infrastructure and global influence. Though the discovery of oil improved living conditions, the dynamic urbanization incurred consequences such as urban sprawl, fragmentation, overuse of land, and an overall lack of sustainable development. The Sultanate of Oman, in contrast with its GCC neighbors, has maintained distance from the influence of Dubaization (Elsheshtawy, Y, 2020), yet the rapidity of urban development has led to heightened social disruption, fragmented policies in land governance, and increasingly unsustainable land management practices. Thus, this study will focus around the issue of land governance in Oman and its relation to tribalism.
BACKGROUND
Because of the tribal hierarchy that existed in the region originally, land became a major issue in the process of developing the state. In tribalized regions, land was able to exist without formal boundaries for thousands of years because tribal structures were primarily focused on authority over people- not territories. Therefore, “the European concepts of the nation state and territorial sovereignty were neither applicable nor comprehensible.” (Rabi, 2011) In the attempt to establish central land governance in the tribal controlled areas of Oman, the state system decided to begin issuing deeds to tribes for land proprietorship in order to appease tribal hierarchy and maintain peace. This initial land allocation transformed into a formally established land lottery system by Royal Decree 81, in 1984 stating that all men over age 21 were allowed one free plot of land. Later the decree was updated (Royal Decree 125, 2008) in order to include women over age 24. Since the Land-Allocation system was established, Oman has continued to struggle with land governance and currently faces an extremely low capacity to implement new and more sustainable land management policies due to high social demand, low-transparency in public policy, and lack of socially studied solutions. Thus, land is continuing to be cut arbitrarily, distributed to citizens for free, and sometimes reserved for social elites by means of tribal Wasta “واسطة” [1] . This has resulted in urban sprawl, over consumption of land, “White-Land”[2], and an overall local sense of land entitlement.
LITERATURE REVIEW AND RESEARCH GAP
Studies of Oman’s and the GCC’s contemporary urban development and spatial planning strategies have been an increasing topic of study over the decades. Current existing literature on land governance and management ranges from both Western and Eastern perspectives but an abundance of the relevant literary work specified for Oman focuses on in-depth numerical, statistical, historical, and scientific data in which surveys various aspects of urbanization and spatial development over the last 45 years. These works mostly highlight issues in 4 main categories: Environment, Urban Development Patterns, Land Allocation and Institutional Reform but leave gaps in the relationships between the social, economic, and political factors which attribute to poor implementation. This pattern can be seen as well across the entire GCC as there is too much focus on technological breakthroughs in development projects and a general disregard for social, political, and economic transformations. (Molotch and Ponzini, 2019) Other recent detailed studies into the urban development patterns in Oman such as Urban Oman by Dr. Sonja Nebel and Aurel von Richthofen give information and background on urban trends such as rural-to-urban migration, rural transformation case studies, Environment and wasteful resources, and changing life-style patterns in Muscat. The authors explain the key directions for adaptation and the first of which included initiative for a major social, cultural, and economic analysis to understand the fabric of life. (Nebel and Richthofen ,2016) The socio-cultural aspect and its influence in urbanization patterns specifically for Oman has yet to be properly researched and documented.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This research will be conducted using mainly social science research methods utilizing a multi-paradigmatic approach of both functionalism and interpretivism in order to create a more holistic approach to understanding the social phenomena of modern-day tribalism in Gulf society. A deeper look into the facets of tribal mentality and its role in the creation of a more sustainable and cohesive land management policy will require first, a thorough desk-review analysis of current land governance policies, land management issues, and land regulations. After this desk-review data is collected, organized, and properly analyzed, I will begin to conduct in-depth interviews with key policy makers and stakeholders in order to collect data and information on the influences of tribal involvement in politics, policy-making, and implementation. Data will then be further analysed through organized workshops involving planning and land professionals combined with social and economic behavioral experts in order to ensure well-rounded outcomes.
[1] Wasta is commonly practiced “act” throughout the Arab world which is frequently linked to using connections in some manner or the other in order to achieve one’s goals. Wasta is also used to circumvent legal issues, to avoid lines in government agencies or to hasten administrative processes. Essays, UK. (November 2018)
[2] ( land that is withheld from the market and usually granted to elites). Heim, B., Joosten, M., Richthofen, A. V., & Rupp, F. (2018)
